A rational magic system is one where every spell is guided by the same metaphysical laws.
Examples of rational magic systems include Avatar: the Last Airbender and The Stormlight Archive. Both have a system with specific rules and guidelines that are employed throughout the story. Irrational systems don't have this, thus making them irrational.
Furthermore, there is also hard and soft fantasy. The difference between hard and soft fantasy lies in how much is explained to the reader. Gandalf from The Lord of the Rings is a character that uses soft magic because he doesn't have his magic explained. We don't know if the system his magic is based in is rational or irrational because so little is actually known about his magic. Hard magic, on the other hand, has established rules, and goes very well with a rational system, since it's all about showing the different working parts of the magic.
For the sake of this post and its title, we're going to assume that you want to build a rational magic system (or at least learn how to do it out of curiosity). I'm not going to go into the nuances between hard and soft rational systems today, though, so consider this a basic guide that you can use to make what you need.
What Fuels the Magic?
Magic needs a fuel, just like how cars are powered by gas. Many stories have specific names for whatever it is that fuels the magic. The term "mana" is relatively popular as a word that is used in roleplaying, but because of this, you might want to choose a different name that works with the rest of the system and isn't so generic.
Patronage
Patronage can be anything from a blessing given by a deity, to power that comes from a spirit or is lended from a magical creature.
Energy
Magic energy can be modeled off of any number of things, including life energy (like in Star Wars), electricity, kinetic energy, and more. Of course, you can always make a totally new energy of your own as well.
Substance
A substance that powers magic can be just about anything. It can be a solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. It can be ingested, injected, inhaled, etc. Typically a substance that powers magic is absorbed (one way or another) by an individual who then uses it to do magic.
Perception
A change in perception can allow magical abilities. For instance, a world may be altered simply by believing that you can, or a fake world can be manipulated by knowing that it is fake.
What Does the Magic Do?
Magic can tachnically do anything that you want it to, but letting your mages run around with all-powerful abilities isn't going to work out in the end. So one way to cut down on this is to choose what your magic can (and can't) do. It helps to make a list of all the things you know you need to have included.
Defining "Magic"
If you're starting completely from scratch, then defining what magic means in your world is a good method. The previous method works as well, but it helps to keep things a little more cohesive if you first define magic. If magic is "the ability to manipulate the elements" then your system will look a lot different from one where it's "the power to change your self and body."
How is the Magic Used?
Once you have established the fact that magic exists and has a fuel, you need a way to use it. You can have the fuel or supplies for something, but it's useless without the ability to actually use any of it.
Willing
Will and thought alone can be used to do magic, and this cuts down on the amount of complications, however it also is more likely to make your character(s) be overpowered.
Speaking
Spells and incantations are spoken. Perhaps a blessing needs to be said, or the specific details need to be laid out in a secret language to make anything happen.
Gestures
Gestures are used in Avatar: the Last Airbender to bend the elements. Different gestures make different things happen. Specific gestures are combined in Naruto for various results.
Symbols
Sometimes magic can be caused by symbols, which can be written in order for the magic to happen. In some cases, speaking the name of the symbol or touching it is required to activate the magic.
Formulas or Rituals
A formula or ritual can be any combination of the above, and can even have more elements as well, like symbols and potions. Some magic relies solely on recipes (potions, alchemy, etc.) for any effect.
What Are the Limits?
Limiting factors are necessary to keep a magic system from becoming overpowered. There are various ways to limit it, but the most relevant ones I included below.
How It is Powered
One way to limit your system is to look at how it is powered. If it is powered by energy, then perhaps the way they get the energy can be a limiting factor, or how much they can use at once.
How It is Defined
If you define magic to be more specific, then that naturally limits the general capabilities of the system. You may need to re-evaluate how broad your definition is, and what exactly it really applies to.
How It is Used
How the magic is used can effectively cause limitations. If a user only has to speak a spell, then maybe they have to memorize it first, and any slip ups can cause the spell to do something unexpected. You can also use wands and staffs as necessary conduits as well.
Who Can Use It
You can also limit who can use the magic. You can go by species or genetics or any number of things. Maybe only people in a certain area can use magic because they've been exposed to the fuel since birth.
Further Development
Further development is entirely up to you. It simply helps establish the magic system as a more crucial aspect of the world that it belongs to.
Classifications and Categories
Classifications and categories help break down a large magic system. For each type of magic, you can even alter certain details, like who can use it, how it is used, etc. For example, in Avatar: the Last Airbender, there are different types of benders, and there are even sub-types as well. In The Stormlight Archive, there are ten orders of the Knights Radiant, and each one has a different combination for their surgebinding.
Special Abilities
Of course, if magic is a staple in your world, you'll probably want something to set your main character apart. Special abilities are a great way to do this. Making them be able to do the same things as everyone else except faster, stronger, or better, is a simple way to do that. On the other hand, you could develop a few abilities that are very rare or have only recently come to light to give your heroes and villains an edge.
Side Effects and Dangers
As always, it is important to establish the side effects and dangers of magic. Some of this can be a part of your limitations. For example, magic might be very draining when it is used for physical tasks, and the longer it is used that way, the worse the strength and coordination of tha magic may become, resulting in a high probability of an accident in a construction setting. Or maybe magic alters the mind or body of those who use it, making it obvious who uses magic and who doesn't.
Origins
This isn't super important, but it may be helpful to determine where the magic came from initially, since history can be a vital part of a plot and worldbuilding.
Culture(s)
How does magic affects the culture(s) around it, and does it have its own culture?
Adding this to my "writing" bookmark! This was soooo helpful.
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